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The Pahalgam terror attack has laid bare the fact that Pakistan is a global epicentre of terrorism. But at the same time, a more insidious reality warrants attention – one that begins at a border post or terror camp, but in a classroom. For decades, Pakistan’s school textbooks have served as quiet instruments of statecraft, designed not just to educate but to indoctrinate. Within their pages, history is weaponized, not remembered; facts are filtered, and enemies are named—chief among them, India.

A critical examination of these textbooks reveals a deeply entrenched narrative that often distorts historical facts, promotes a singular religious identity, and fosters a sense of antagonism towards India. This deliberate alteration of history serves to reinforce a particular ideological stance, often at the expense of a nuanced understanding of the past and the complex realities of the subcontinent.

Rebranding of freedom struggle

One of the most significant areas of distortion in Pakistani textbooks lies in the portrayal of the Indian independence movement and the events leading to the Partition of 1947. In Pakistani textbooks, the Indian freedom movement is barely Indian.

Instead of portraying it as a collective anti-colonial struggle, the narrative is distorted to portray Muslims as the sole freedom fighters, while Congress is vilified.

“The Muslims of the subcontinent were the first to rise against British imperialism, while the Hindus welcomed British rule. The Indian National Congress, dominated by Hindus, never sincerely supported the Muslim cause,” reads a portion from Pakistan Studies for Class IX-X (Punjab Textbook Board, 2003 edition)

This portrayal completely ignores the roles of Indian freedom icons like Bhagat Singh, Subhas Chandra Bose, and even moderate Congress leaders, replacing them with a communal narrative that sets up Partition as inevitable from the outset.

Partition portrayed as divine victory

The common narrative presented in Pakistani textbooks attributes the demand for Pakistan solely to the alleged persecution and marginalization of Muslims by the Hindu majority.

The Pakistan Studies book for grades eleven and twelve issued by the Federal Textbook Board Islamabad lists Hindu extremism as a factor that led to Partition: “The Muslims had lived with the Hindus as neighbors and compatriots for about one thousand years. On the basis of their experience, they could not expect good neighborly treatment from the extremist Hindus, who had already made it clear that the Muslims had no place in India, they should either embrace Hinduism or quit India”.

Rather than framing Partition as a tragedy or a deeply painful chapter in shared history, Pakistani textbooks portray it as a necessary and even divine victory.

“The creation of Pakistan was the greatest blessing for Muslims of the subcontinent. It saved them from Hindu enslavement and preserved their religion and culture,” reads a sentence from Social Studies, Class 8, (Pakistan’s) Punjab Board.

While the immense tragedy and loss of life on both sides of the border are undeniable, Pakistani textbooks often present a one-sided account that minimizes or ignores the violence perpetrated against Hindus and Sikhs in the areas that became Pakistan. This selective focus contributes to a narrative of Muslim victimhood and reinforces a sense of historical grievance against India.

In contrast, the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) textbooks include first-person testimonies and objective discussions of violence—not celebration.

Jinnah and Gandhi – A troubling portrayal

One of the most troubling aspects of Pakistani textbooks is how they mythologize Muhammad Ali Jinnah while portraying an adverse picture of Mahatma Gandhi.

“Quaid-e-Azam [Jinnah] stood for the rights of Muslims who were being systematically oppressed by Hindu leaders. Gandhi’s so-called non-violence was a tool to trap Muslims into Hindu domination,” reads one of the Class 10 books published by Federal Textbook Board.

Jinnah is often presented in Pakistani textbooks as the sole visionary and saviour of the Muslims of the subcontinent. The textbooks often fail to adequately address the concerns and criticisms raised by various Muslim groups and leaders who opposed the idea of Partition. The diversity of Muslim political thought during the independence movement is often marginalized in favor of a monolithic portrayal of Muslim support for the creation of Pakistan.

Religion and the Hindu ‘other’

Pakistani schoolchildren are introduced to Hinduism not as a faith, but as a political and cultural threat. While Islam is naturally given prominence as the religion of the majority, the treatment of other religions, particularly Hinduism, can be problematic. At times, Hindu beliefs and practices are misrepresented or stereotyped, contributing to a sense of religious otherness and potentially fostering prejudice among young students.

“Hindus worship many gods and consider cows sacred. Their religion is based on myths and promotes inequality through the caste system,” reads Islamiyat for Class IX, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Textbook Board.

“Hinduism persistently tried to absorb Islam into itself like it had done with other systems (of belief).” Pakistan Studies Textbook, Grade 9, Punjab Textbook Board.

Language as a Weapon: Urdu vs Hindi

Even linguistics is politicized. Urdu is portrayed as the only "Muslim" language, while Hindi is described as an artificial construct imposed by Hindu elites to erase Islamic heritage.

“On assuming power, Congressional ministries started a strong campaign against the Urdu language and enforced Hindi as the official language. Although Urdu was the common language of Hindus and Muslims, Gandhi refused it. He clearly said that Urdu is a Muslim language and written in Quranic script. It is up to Muslims to keep it or not. Bande Matrum was adopted as the national anthem, which caused animosity towards Muslims. Children in schools were forced to salute Gandhi’s portrait, and in some schools his status was worshiped. It became difficult for Muslims to live a life with dignity. Muslims were declared to be tyrants, oppressors and filthy. Bands were played in front of the mosques at prayer times [. . .] people carried out attacks on Muslims in mosques; the government banned the call to prayer and ritual cow slaughtering [. . .]” – Chapter: Pakistan Ideology (p.103–117), Grade 8, Social Studies, Balochistan Textbooks.

US report highlights religious bias and intolerance in Pakistani textbooks

The 2016 report by the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF), titled Teaching Intolerance in Pakistan, uncovers systematic religious bias and state-sanctioned intolerance in Pakistani public school textbooks. Drawing from a review of 78 books across all four provinces—Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), and Baluchistan—the study reveals 70 new examples of religious intolerance in addition to residual content from earlier editions. These books, used by millions of students, project a monolithic Islamic identity for Pakistan while portraying religious minorities—especially Hindus, Christians, Jews, Sikhs, and Ahmadis—as threats, traitors, or inferiors. The report shows how textbooks propagate negative stereotypes, historical distortions, and communal hatred, potentially radicalizing future generations.

Below are the key findings from the report:

What Indian textbooks do differently

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